The Tang dynasty brought prosperity to China by encouraging trade. The Grand Canal opened up domestic commerce, and the Tang resuscitated long-distance trade over the Silk Road.
Tang emperors welcomed foreign envoys and gathered tribute from distant lands. Traders sent staples like silk and tea but also exotica including lions and rhinoceroses from Champa, sandalwood from the Malay peninsula and cardamom from western Turkistan.
Art
The Tang Dynasty was a time of great artistic achievement. It was the first period when painting became an art form in China, not simply a means of recording scenes or teaching religious doctrine. Ink paintings had always been a form of art, but now artists used free brush strokes to create a work of beauty and excitement. One of the most accomplished artists was Wu Daozi, who created a technique known as "Drawing of Water Shield." The painting method required extensive training and mastery of both the techniques of calligraphy and drawing. Previously, most Chinese paintings were outline sketches to be filled in with color; but by using a single black ink and allowing the movement of the brush, Wu created works that captured the essence of the subject matter.
Tang art also was influenced by the many foreign cultures that entered China during this period. Although the Tang emperors were not open to the practice of Buddhism, they did promote a more cosmopolitan lifestyle. Ethnic Chinese were encouraged to engage in activities other than traditional ones, and they did not need to be of the upper class to participate. This encouraged the development of an intellectual society.
The Tang dynasty introduced the official examination system that became the primary path to public office. This allowed educated men without family connections to become government officials. This change shifted power away from family and clan networks and further unified the empire.
Tang rulers sought to strengthen the central government by subduing the nomadic tribes that inhabited China's northern border. They also fought against internal rebellions and raids by other kingdoms, securing peace on overland trade routes that reached as far as Syria and Rome.
Tang culture was enriched by new ideas in music, dance and literature, as well as new technologies and rare luxuries from overseas. These ideas were transmitted to the outside world through the Silk Road and by sea. For example, the Tang dynasty's use of silk allowed for the creation of tapestries that displayed many foreign styles and influences. The most famous group of such silks to survive is the Dunhuang Caves collection.
Literature
During the Tang, China subdued nomadic tribes to the north and northwest and secured peace and safety on overland trade routes that reached as far as Syria and Rome. But the dynasty's international ambitions began to undermine its internal stability. Rebellions, bandits and a series of defeats to neighboring kingdoms diverted resources, while foreign intrigue created fissures in the central government's foundation.
The official examination system established a social elite drawn from educated men with no family connections to the old aristocracy. Open competition for jobs allowed scholars to acquire status in their local communities while developing a sense of esprit de corps with the imperial court. This new class of scholar-officials eventually replaced the aristocracy as the dominant political and cultural force in China.
Tang poets were at the forefront of this movement, experimenting with the relationship between poetry and words while pushing the limits of what could be written. Poets like Han Yu, Wei Yiwu, Meng Jiao, and Jia Dao were too individualistic to be grouped together, but they shared an experimental attitude towards poetic form. Tang poets also satirized the dark reality of their times. One famous poem by Bai Juyi, "The Old Charcoal Seller," fully portrayed a life of misery and hopelessness.
In the late Tang era, a growing hostility to the charms of foreign cultures caused the government to rethink its previously tolerant stance toward Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism. From 842 to 846, a brutal campaign against these religions was launched. Although they would continue to flourish in private, religious life, these faiths were no longer part of the mainstream Chinese culture.
Featuring a comprehensive bibliography, explanatory notes, copious illustrations and two-way romanization tables coordinating the Wade-Giles and pinyin transliteration systems, this book offers an invaluable resource for those interested in Chinese culture and history. Special highlights include chapters devoted to the luminaries of Tang poetry; early literary criticism; the literature of women from the first century B.C. to the tenth century C.E.; and the poetry of Zen and the Tao. The text provides an invaluable tool for students, teachers and general readers in their exploration of this rich tradition of world literature.
Technology
During Tang times, Chinese technology grew ever more sophisticated. New inventions included a ceramic known as porcelain, advances in mapmaking and clock-making, a new style of furniture that resembled Western canopied beds, and a broader range of textiles. The emergence of the silk road encouraged trade with Central Asia, and a web of merchants brought foreign ideas to China.
The emperors of the Tang era promoted innovation in government as well. Emperor Gaozu, who ruled from 618-626 CE, built on the administrative innovations of his predecessors and made open competition for civil service jobs more formalized. He also consolidated control over the military, eliminating warlords and placing his own officers in command of regional forces. His successor, Emperor Taizong (r. 626-649 CE) perfected the political, jurisdictional and governmental organization of the empire and led military campaigns that opened up Inner Asian markets to Chinese goods.
The Tang dynasty enjoyed a golden age of economic prosperity. The emperors’ monetary policies reduced inflation and stabilized the money supply, and the tripartite tax system was made the basis of the entire Chinese bureaucracy. The emperors also created a centralized educational system and established a Hanlin Academy, a university that emphasized Confucian learning.
In the field of religion, Buddhism and Taoism both gained popularity. Chinese Buddhism, which was based on the teachings of Laozi and focuses on living in harmony with nature, competed with Indian Hinduism and Jainism for followers. During the 8th and 9th centuries, however, Buddhists suffered persecution, while Tang-era rulers also loosened their earlier tolerance of foreign religions to include Nestorian Christianity.
The Tang era was marked by a wide variety of popular culture. Western music and dance found a large audience in the cities, where exotic troupes of girls performed on strange instruments in taverns. The era’s literary tradition produced a great deal of poetry, and talented poets were well-respected, as their work was frequently recited at parties. In the palace, court intrigue was rife and eunuchs played a key role in assassinating many emperors. Xuanzang, the famed Tang era pilgrim and traveler, was among the few good emperors during this period.
Trade
Tang rulers sought to cultivate an economy that was strong and resilient. The Tang capital of Chang’an was the world’s most populous city for much of this dynasty and the empire stretched as far as Korea in the east, the steppes of Mongolia in the north, present-day Afghanistan in the west, and even northern Vietnam in the south. Trade was essential to this economic strength. The Tang emperors sought to ensure safety and peace on overland trade routes (the Silk Road) so that merchants, diplomats, and pilgrims could travel safely. These travelers brought with them new religions, ideas, and cultural practices that were eagerly embraced by Tang elite circles.
The Tang dynasty also sought to promote open competition for high office. This helped reduce the dependence of the emperors on powerful aristocratic families and warlords. The law code also provided equal division of inherited property to legitimate heirs, limiting the influence of family wealth in politics. These changes allowed a cadre of career officials to rise up through merit and create a sense of community among the ranks. These scholar-officials were instrumental in connecting the people to the imperial court.
Because of this governmental stability, Tang China became more prosperous. Food was available in abundance and taxes were collected more efficiently. The Tang dynasty also promoted trade with neighboring countries like India to secure access to spices, tea, silk, and other luxury goods. As a result, the Tang era became the most important and successful time in Chinese history for trade and commerce.
In addition, the Tang dynasty established itself as a major cultural influence on neighboring East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan. This was due to the spread of Buddhism and the transmission of Chinese manifestations of Taoism to these countries. The era also saw the rise of temple architecture modeled on Chinese palaces and incorporating pagodas.
For many people, Tang China was the pinnacle of their lives. During the early Tang period, people sat cross-legged on low platform-like couches without backs or armrests. By mid-Tang, chairs from the West with higher and more comfortable backs began to replace these couches. Beds were carved from wood, porcelain, or stone and were canopied. Pillows were hard and indented to cradle one’s head.
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