The Ming Dynasty witnessed a remarkable evolution of ceramic art. In particular, porcelain replaced stoneware as the dominant type of ware and “blue-and-white” porcelain (decorated with cobalt blue painting under the glaze) became an iconic symbol of Chinese artistry.
Other types of ware were also developed, such as the creamy white porcelain known to Europeans as Blanc de Chine. The motifs on these pieces often displayed a new sense of naturalism.
Artistic Styles
The Ming Dynasty was one of the most productive periods for Chinese artistic production, especially ceramics. The era is regarded as the first true Chinese pottery renaissance since the Qin dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). The Ming period was also known for its calligraphy and artful depictions of animals, plants, flowers, dragons, and phoenixes. Ceramics and other works in porcelain, metal, lacquer, and enamel flourished during the Ming era because of the new development of kaolin clay as well as the growing international interaction between China and other cultures.
Porcelain became a hallmark of the period because it is light, durable, and easily decorated. The renowned Dehua porcelain, known for its creamy white hue and fine texture, was popular because of its versatility and artistic value. This was partly due to the fact that Dehua porcelain could be molded into a variety of shapes and ornamented with motifs.
In general, ceramic decorations became more elaborate, probably to appeal to the tastes of the Europeans who were buying huge amounts of porcelain from China at that time. Pottery motifs borrowed from painting and included stylized florals, bamboo, pine needles, grape vine scrolls, lotus petals, reeds, chrysanthemums, and fruit sprays. Other motifs were drawn from nature, such as waves, pines, plums, pomegranates, peaches, and tangerines.
Ming artisans used a wide range of glazes to achieve different colorations and effects. Some of the most popular glazes include celadon, pearly white, moonlight blue, cracked ice, and ox blood. In addition, craftsmen used underglazing and overglaze techniques to further embellish their pieces. Underglazing involves applying colored glazes underneath the surface of a fired and glazed piece, while overglaze involves adding colored paints or glazes on top of the existing color.
Types of Ceramics
The Ming emperors placed a new emphasis on the production of fine porcelain, and large scale manufacture and organised trade took hold. Major kiln sites were established that spanned several provinces and an assembly line style of production was implemented. Jingdezhen remained the main centre of ceramics production. The Hongwu Emperor (1368-1398) imposes strict control over what had been a thriving porcelain trade that saw wares exported across Asia and as far afield as Europe.
Blue and white wares dominated the export market. The body of these wares was white, and the entire piece was covered with a clear glaze, so the decoration could only be seen if light shined on the surface. Designs were incised, or painted with white slip, and pierced work was revived as a design motif inspired by jade. The sancai or three-colour wares developed during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD) were also popular. This was the first time that lead glazes had been successfully used on porcelain in China. This allowed a wide variety of colours to be applied to the surface including yellow, green and aubergine-red (the precursors of the Qing famille verte palette).
In addition, naturalism was favoured by ceramic artists. This included stylised flowers, waves, reeds and fruit sprays that were borrowed from painting. Other motifs, such as fish and birds – songbirds, herons and geese – were also commonplace.
Other types of ceramics produced were jars, tea bowls and other vessels of the type long seen in Chinese ceramics; flasks of all shapes and sizes, including the flattish'moon flasks', wine-ewers that look like teapots and shallow dishes with a range of handles. Ceramics could take on all sorts of other forms too, such as lamps, brush rests and even incense burners.
Geographical Influences
During the Ming, porcelain was produced across China and it is important to understand the geographical influences on ceramic production. Jingdezhen, the pottery capital of the dynasty, continued its dominance as the main producer of fine ceramics for the imperial court and global trade. The main product was white porcelain decorated with cobalt blue painting under the glaze. The use of this highly prized pigment remained dependent on foreign supplies until the 16th century when methods for refining native cobalt were developed.
Other Jingdezhen wares were bolder in form and more adventurous in decoration. Designs ranged from figurative to abstract and many of the motifs were inspired by nature or by jade. Porcelain artists also experimented with glazed colors and finishes such as peach bloom, moonlight blue, cracked ice, ox blood, rice grain and rose pink. Pierced work was revived in some rare pieces influenced by jade and the use of incised decoration was also inspired by Persian Gombroon ware.
Jingdezhen wares were the foundation of the Ming porcelain empire, but the dynasty also exported celadons from the Dehua region. The main exports were to Europe where a great interest in Chinese ceramics developed, but there is evidence that porcelain was also sent to Japan and Korea. Most celadons attributable to the Ming have incised under-glaze floral and foliate designs, but some have been embellished with human figures dressed in robes.
One of the great achievements of the Ming dynasty was its introduction of a uniform standard of quality for ceramics. This standard is still used today and helps archaeologists to date porcelain from the dynasty. The standard is based on factors such as shape, size and decoration. In addition, reign marks were introduced which allow for precise dating of ceramics and can help to determine a dynasty.
Famous Works of Art
The Ming Dynasty was a period of great advancements in traditional Chinese art. Its artisans excelled in ceramic production, particularly blue and white ware (which featured cobalt blue designs on a white background) and cloisonné enamelware. The era also witnessed a flourishing of decorative arts, including complex brocade weavings and textile embroidery, carved lacquer with delicate pictorial or floral motifs, and porcelain adorned with intricate patterns. These works were highly sought after export items in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and many of them still form the precious collections of museums dedicated to Chinese art today.
Ming artists also innovated in the literary arena, publishing vernacular novels that reached a much wider audience than Confucian court literature and incorporating themes outside the norms of traditional Confucian styles. Other popular literary forms included the essay, travel writing and private newspapers. Meanwhile, the fine arts continued to thrive, with classical forms of painting remaining intact and new schools of art arising.
The period was also a time of global trade, with the Ming dynasty ceramics coveted throughout Asia and Europe. The imperial kilns at Jingdezhen and Dehua remained major production centers, while individual potters, such as He Chaozong, became famous for their styles of white porcelain sculpture.
The renowned Ming porcelain vases were characterized by their bold shapes and varied designs. Some decorative motifs, like dragons and phoenixes, reflected ancient myths and legends. Others incorporated the auspicious symbols of Islam and Tibet, reflecting the growing contact between China and the Middle East. The Ming porcelain craftsmen also developed a number of innovative techniques. One such technique involved adding manganese to the cobalt used in the blue underglaze, allowing for sharper lines that would otherwise be blurred by the glaze.
Architectural Achievements
The Ming Dynasty saw a great exchange of styles between East and West. While the Yongle Emperor’s era was a time of many technological ceramic achievements, it would be the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty who truly embraced this creative exchange by inviting European artisans to the palace workshops of the Forbidden City in Beijing. As a result, ceramics produced under the Qing were often reminiscent of Western forms and styles. The refinement of techniques also led to delicate and intricate designs that showcased both artistic finesse and technical skill. The famous "blue-and-white" porcelain, characterized by cobalt-blue decorations on a white background, was a prime example of this.
The popularity of Ming wares extended far beyond China’s borders, gaining a following among European elites. This was largely due to the large production centers of Jingdezhen and Dehua that catered to export markets. During this period, ceramic artists were able to apply underglaze and overglaze techniques that allowed for more detailed designs and richer colors.
Unlike the traditional black-glazed pottery of previous Chinese dynasties, the Ming Dynasty’s kilns began producing pieces in a variety of colors including pink, yellow, green, and blue. The colors were applied over the glaze in underglaze, which meant that the decoration was not burned into the piece and could be easily removed at a later date.
As a result of the Ming Dynasty’s extensive maritime trade, Chinese ceramics came into contact with a wide range of foreign influences. The use of carved designs, auspicious Arabic and Tibetan inscriptions, and even foreign animal and plant motifs became commonplace. Another significant advancement was the use of reign marks on porcelain – something that did not become a regular practice in ceramics until the late Ming Dynasty.
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